William Marshal
Earl
of Pembroke
Copyright
© 1998 by Catherine Armstrong
Below:
Tomb effigy of William Marshal at Temple Church, London.
In
a room of the Tower of London in August 1189, two people who were about to be
married met for the first time. This twist of fate or act of destiny would have
a far-reaching effect on English history. The young lady was Isabel de Clare,
sole heiress of Richard Strongbow de Clare, Earl of Pembroke and Striguil, and
Aoife, daughter of Dermot MacMurrough, King of Leinster. The man was William
Marshal, the second son of John the Marshal and Sibyl, sister of Patrick, Earl
of Salisbury. There are no accounts of this first meeting nor of their marriage
ceremony, but this was the final step in the making of one of the greatest
knights and magnates of medieval English history.
William
Marshal's life is well documented because less than a year after his death in
1219, his eldest son William II commissioned a record of his father's life.
"L' Historie de Guillaume le Marechal," is a metrical history of a
man and of the knightly class in the late twelfth and early thirteenth century.
Little is known about the writer of "L' Historie" except that his
first name was Jean, that he personally witnessed some of the events in
Marshal's later life, and that he had access to Marshal's squire John D'Erley.
The point of view is that of the secular knightly class and not of the
ecclesiastical class. The events recorded in "L' Historie" can be
verified in most instances by the official records in the Pipe Rolls, Charter
Rolls, Close Rolls, Patent Rolls, Oblatis Rolls, and chronicles of the times.
William
Marshal was born c 1146, and as a younger son, becoming a knight was his
natural choice of a path to success and survival. Marshal was sent to his
father's cousin William of Tancarville, hereditary Chamberlain of Normandy, to
be trained as a knight in c1159. He was knighted, probably by his uncle, in
1167.
Below
right: William Marshal's Great Tower at Pembroke Castle.
In
1170 William Marshal was appointed head of the mesnie (military) household of
the young Prince Henry by King Henry II. From this time until young Henry's
death in June of 1183, Marshal was responsible for protecting, training and
running the military household of the heir. In 1173, William Marshal knighted
the young Henry, and thereby became Henry's lord in chivalry. We know that
Marshal led young Henry and his mesnie to many victories on the tournament
fields of Normandy. It is during the years from 1170 to 1183 that William
Marshal established his status as an undefeated knight in tournaments. It is
here that Marshal began to establish his friendships with the powerful and
influential men of his day. His reputation and his character were built through
his own actions and abilities. In this age of feudalism, Marshal was a landless
knight. He had no lord from whom he could gain advantages or status.
On
the death of the young Henry, Marshal obtained permission from Henry II to take
the young Henry's cross to Jerusalem. Marshal spent two years in the Holy Land
fighting for King Guy of Jerusalem and the Knights' Templar. There are no known
records of his time in the east, but we know that some of the castle building
techniques he later used at Pembroke were probably learned here.
Henry
II granted Marshal his first fief, Cartmel in Lancashire, in 1187. With this
fief Marshal became a vassal of King Henry II and swore fealty to him as his
lord and his king. Until Henry II's death in 1188, William Marshal served as
his knight, his counselor, and his ambassador. When Richard I came to the
throne, he recognized Marshal as a brother and equal in chivalry. Fulfilling
the promise made by his father, Richard gave Marshal the heiress Isabel de
Clare and all her lands in marriage.
With
this marriage, William Marshal became "in right of his wife" one of
the greatest lords and magnates in the Plantagenet kingdom. Isabel brought to
Marshal the palatine lordships of Pembroke and Striguil in Wales and the
lordship of Leinster in Ireland. These were large fiefs of land where the lord
held as tenant-in-chief of the Crown. A palatine lord's word was law within his
lands. He had the right to appoint his own officials, courts and sheriffs, and
collect and keep the proceeds of his courts and governments. Except for
ecclesiastical cases, the king's writ did not run in the palatinates. King
Richard also allowed Marshal to have 1/2 of the barony of Giffard for 2000
marks. This barony was split with Richard de Clare, Earl of Clare and Hertford,
who held the barony in England as lord while Marshal held the land in Normandy
as lord. This gave Marshal the demesne manors of Crendon in Buckinghamshire and
Caversham in Oxfordshire, for 43 knights' fees, and the fief of Longueville in
Normandy with the castles of Longueville and Mueller and Moulineaux, for about
40 knights' fees.
Below
right: Chepstow Castle in south Wales.
Marshal
considered the lands that he held to be one unit, not separate units of
English, Irish, Welsh, and Norman lands. They were a compact whole to be
preserved and improved for the inheritance of his children. Marshal used what
he had learned fighting in Normandy and in the Holy Land to improve these
fiefs. The great Tower, the Horseshoe Gatehouse, and the fighting gallery in
the outer curtain wall at Pembroke were built under his guidance. At Chepstow
(Striguil), he was responsible for the gate in the middle bailey, the
rebuilding of the upper level of the keep, the west barbican, and the upper and
lower bailey. Marshal was also responsible for the building of the castle at
Kilkenny, the new castle at Emlyn, and for taking and improving Cilgerran. From
a list of castles by R. A. Brown for the period from 1153 to 1214, Marshal held
Chepstow, Cilgerran, Emlyn, Goodrich, Haverford, Inkberrow, Pembroke, Tenby,
and Usk in England and Wales. Just these castles would have produced more than
two hundred knights' fees owed by Marshal to the Crown. Without including his
lands in Normandy and Ireland, as feudal lord Marshal controlled a vast amount
of land, wealth, and knights/vassals in the Angevin kingdom.
William
Marshal served King Richard faithfully as knight, vassal, ambassador, itinerant
justice, associate justiciar, counselor, and friend. On Richard I's untimely
death in 1199, William Marshal supported John as heir to the throne rather than
John's nephew, Arthur of Brittany. It was King John who belted William Marshal
and created him Earl of Pembroke on the same day that John was crowned King,
May 27, 1199. It is during King John's reign that the character of William
Marshal is clearly revealed. John's character has been drawn by countless
historians, and none have been able to erase the ineptitude that King John
displayed when dealing with his English barons. Whatever his motives were, John
inevitably alienated his greatest barons despite the fact that he needed their
support and loyalty to rule England. William Marshal was a powerful, respected,
wise and loyal knight and baron who had already served two Angevin kings. King
John, however, accused Marshal of being a traitor, took all of Marshal's
English and Welsh castles, took Marshal's two older sons as hostages, tried to
take Marshal's lands in Leinster, and even tried to get his own household
knights to challenge Marshal to trial by combat. Despite all of this, William
Marshal remained loyal to his feudal lord. He did not rebel when John took his
castles; he gave up his two sons as hostages; he supported John against the
Papal Interdict; and he supported John in the baronial rebellion. Of all the
bonds of feudalism, the greatest and the most important bond was the one of
fealty, of loyalty to one's lord. To break this bond and oath was treason, and
this was the greatest of crimes. William Marshal was the epitome of knighthood
and chivalry. He did not simply espouse it. Marshal's entire life was governed
by his oaths of fealty and by his own innate sense of honour. If Marshal had
taken his lands, castles, and knights to the side of the rebellion, King John
would have lost his crown and perhaps his life.
On
the death of John, October 19,1216, William Marshal was chosen by his peers in
England as regent for the nine year old Henry III. Henry was knighted and then
crowned under the seal of the Earl of Pembroke. William Marshal was the main
force and impetus for the defeat of Philip II of France, even leading the
attack to relieve Lincoln castle in May 1217 though he was seventy years old.
On September 11, 1217, Marshal negotiated the Treaty of Lambeth that ended the
war. By his wise treatment of those English barons who had supported Philip II
against King John, Marshal ensured the restoration of peace and order in
England. This undefeated knight had become a great statesman in the last years
of his life. William Marshal died May 14, 1219 at Caversham and was buried as a
Knight Templar in the Temple Church in London.
Below:
Temple Church, London, where William Marshal and two of his sons are buried.
William
Marshal had been born during the Civil Wars of King Stephen and Empress
Mathilda. He trained and knighted one intended king; served faithfully Kings
Henry II, Richard the Lionheart, and John Lackland; and knighted and served as
regent for a fourth king. As "rector regis et regni," Marshal had the
Great Charter reissued in 1216 and in 1217 for the welfare and future of
England and the Crown. There are many explanations and definitions of Marshal,
his life and his time. Some say he survived so long and so well because of his
physical stamina and condition, that he was simply a man of great physical
strength. This gives only a piece of the complete portrait of William Marshal.
He was a brilliant strategist in terms of his world, militarily and
politically. He lived and survived in Henry II's arena, earning Henry's respect
and affection. No man of little intelligence would have survived very long
there. William Marshal can be understood in terms of his world of feudalism,
fealty, loyalty and honour. Marshal stood by King John because of Marshal's
oath of fealty and homage to his "lord," who also happened to be the
King. William Marshal was a man who lived his life according to his sense of
honour, and his sense of honour was defined in the laws and customs of
feudalism and knighthood. It is that sense of honour that made no man equal to
William Marshal, knight, Earl of Pembroke and Striguil, Lord of Leinster, and
Regent of England.
This
essay is part of a series (listed below) written by Catherine Armstrong
focusing on the life and times of William Marshal and his father-in-law Richard
fitz Gilbert de Clare.
William Marshal
John fitz Gilbert (Marshal's father)
Richard fitz Gilbert de Clare, Strongbow
(Marshal's father-in-law)
The parents of Isabel de Clare (Marshal's
wife)
The Children of William Marshal and Isabel de
Clare
Catherine
Armstrong has Master's degree in Professional Writing from Kennesaw State
University. Her field is medieval English history. Her specific field is
William Marshal, his fiefs and "familiares". Her concentration is on
the lands and people bound to Marshal by blood and marriage, by feudal tenure,
and by "affinity". She can be reached via e-mail at:
[email protected] .
Bibliography
Ab
Ithel, John W. Annales Cambriae. London: Longman and Roberts, 1860.
Ab
Ithel, John W. Annales Cambriae Annales Cambriae London: HMSO, 1860.
Altschul,
Michael. A Baronial Family in Medieval England: The Clares, 1217-1314.
Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins Press, 1965.
Annals
of The Four Masters; Translated from the Original Irish of the Four Masters.
trans. Owen Connellan. Dublin: B. Geraghty, 1846.
Annales
Monastici. Vol. I. [Annales de Margan (AD 1066-1232); Annals de Theokesberia
(AD 1061-1263); Annals de Burton (AD 1004-1263)]. ed. H. R. Luard. London:
HMSO, 1864. London: Kraus Reprint, 1965.
Annales
Monastici. Vol. II. [Annales de Wintonia (AD 1066-1232); Annales de Waverleia
(AD 1-1291)]. ed. H.R. Luard. London: Longman, Green, Longman, Roberts and
Green, 1865.
Barlow,
Frank. The Feudal Kingdom of England 1042-1216. London: David McKay, Co., 1988.
Barnard,
Francis Pierrepont. Strongbow's Conquest of Ireland. New York: G. P. Putnam's
Sons, 1888.
Bartlett,
Robert. Gerald of Wales 1146-1223. Oxford: The Clarendon Press, 1982.
Bateson,
Mary. Medieval England 1066-1350. New York: Books for Libraries Press, 1971.
Beeler,
J. H. Warfare in England 1066-1189. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1966.
Bottomley,
Frank. The Castle Explorer's Guide. New York: Avenel Books, 1979.
Brooks,
Eric St John. Knights' Fees in Counties Wexford, Carlow and Kilkenny:
Thirteenth - Fifteenth Centuries. Dublin: Stationery Office, 1950.
Brown,
R. Allen. Castles, Conquest, Charters: Collected Papers. Woodbridge: The
Boydell Press, 1989.
---.
English Castles. London: L.T. Batsford Ltd., 1976.
---.
The Architecture of Castles; A Visual Guide. New York: Facts On File
Publications, 1984.
Brown,
R. Allen, ed. Proceedings of the Battle Conference on Anglo-Norman Studies IV,
1981. Woodbridge: The Boydell Press, 1982.
---.
Proceedings of the Battle Conference in Anglo-Norman Studies VIII,1985.
Woodbridge: The Boydell Press, 1986.
Cairns,
Trevor. Medieval Knights. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992.
Carpenter,
D. A. The Minority of Henry III. London: Methuen, 1990.
Carr,
A. D. Medieval Wales. New York: St. Martins' Press, 1995.
Cazel,
Fred A. ed. Feudalism and Liberty: Articles and Addresses of Sidney Painter.
Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins Press, 1961.
Cazel,
Fred A., ed. Roll of Divers Accounts for the Early Years of the Reign of Henry
III. London: J.W. Ruddock & Sons, Ltd., 1982.
Chaplais.
Pierre. ed. Diplomatic Documents Preserved in the Public Record Office
1101-1272. London: J.W. Ruddock & Sons, Ltd., 1971.
---.
English Royal Documents King John - Henry VII. Oxford: The Clarendon Press, 1971.
Colvin,
H. M. ed. The History of the King's Works. London: HMSO, 1967.
Conlon,
Denis J. ed. The Song of Dermot and Earl Richard FitzGilbert: "Le Chansun
de Dermot e li Quens Richard FizGilberti." New York: Peter Lang, 1992.
Coss,
Peter. The Knight in Medieval England 1000-1400. Dover: Alan Sutton Publishing
Inc., 1993.
Coss,
Peter and S. D. Lloyd, eds. Thirteenth Century England II: Proceedings of the
Newcastle upon Tyme Conference, 1987. Woodbridge: The Boydell Press, 1987-88.
Coss,
Peter and S. D. Lloyd, eds. Thirteenth Century England III: Proceedings of the
Newcastle upon Tyme Conference, 1989. Woodbridge: The Boydell Press, 1989-90.
Cunningham,
George. The Anglo-Norman Advance into the Southwest Midlands of Ireland
1185-1221. Roscrea, Ireland: Parkmore Press, 1987.
Curtis,
Edmund, ed. Calendar of Ormond Deeds: Vol. I-III; 1172-1509. Dublin: The
Stationery Office, 1932-35.
Curtis,
Edmund and R. B. McDowell, eds. Irish Historical Documents 1172-1922. New York:
Barnes and Noble, Inc., 1968.
Davies,
John. A History of Wales. New York: Penguin Books, 1994.
Davies,
J. Conway, ed. The Cartae Antiquae Rolls 11-20. Printed from the Original MSS.
London: J. W. Ruddock & Sons, Ltd., 1960.
Davies,
R. R. The British Isles 1100-1500: Comparisons, Contrasts and Connections.
Edinburgh: John Donald Publishers, Ltd., 1988.
---.
Domination and Conquest: The Experience of Ireland, Scotland and Wales.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990.
Denholm-Young,
Neal. Collected Papers on Medieval Subjects. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1946.
Dolley,
Michael. Anglo-Norman Ireland c 1100-1318. Dublin: Gill and MacMillan, Ltd.,
1972.
Douglas,
David C. and George W. Greenway, eds. English Historical Documents 1042-1189.
London: Eyre and Spottiswoode, 1975.
Duby,
Georges. L' Historie de Guillaume le Marechal: William Marshal the Flower of
Chivalry. trans. Richard Howard. New York: Pantheon Press, 1985.
---.
The Chivalrous Society. trans. Cynthia Postan. Berkeley: University of
California Press, 1977.
Eyton,
Robert W., ed. Court, Household and Itinerary of Henry II. London: Taylor,
1878.
Farrer.
William. Honors and Knights' Fees. Manchester: University of Manchester Press,
1923-25.
Flanagan,
Marie Theresa. Irish Society: Anglo-Norman Settlers; Angevin Kingship. Oxford:
The Clarendon Press, 1989.
Fleming,
Robin. Kings, Lords in Conquest England. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
1991.
Frame,
Robin. Colonial Ireland 1169-1369. Dublin: Helicon Ltd., 1981.
---.
The Political Development of the British Isles 1100-1400. Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 1990.
Gillingham,
John. Richard Couer de Lion: Kingship, Chivalry and War in the Twelfth Century.
London: the Hambledon Press, 1994.
Gillingham,
J. and J. C. Holt, eds. War and Government in the Middle Ages: Essays in Honour
of J. O. Prestwick. Woodbridge: The Boydell Press, 1984.
Goronwy,
Edwards J., ed. Calendar of Ancient Correspondence Concerning Wales. Cardiff:
University Press Board, 1935.
Great
Britain. Court of the Chancery. Rotuli Chartarum in turri londinensi asservati
Vol. I Pars I. ed. T. D. Hardy. London: G. Eyre and A. Spottiswoode, 1837.
Great
Britain. Court of the Chancery. Rotuli litterarum clausarum in turri londinensi
asservati. Vol. I-II. ed. T. D. Hardy. London: G. Eyre and A. Spottiswoode,
1833-44.
Great
Britian. Court of the Chancery. Rotuli litterarum patentium in turri londinensi
asservati. London: G. Eyre and A. Spottiswoode, 1835.
Great
Britian. Curia Regis. Curia Regis Rolls Vol. 6-7. London: HMSO, 1932, 1935.
Great
Britain. Exchequer. Ancient Deeds series A (E.40/13673-115068) Calendar Vol.
151. London: HMSO Swift Printers Ltd., 1978.
Great
Britain. Exchequer. Liber Feodorum: The Book of Fees, commonly called Testa de
Nevill. 3 vols. ed. H. C. Maxwell Lyte. London: HMSO, 1920-31.
Great
Britain. Record Commission. Abbreviatio Placitorum Richard I - Edward II. eds.
G. Rose and W. Illingworth. London: G. Eyre, 1811.
Great
Britain. Record Commission. Calendarium Rotularum Patentium in turri
londinensi. London: G. Eyre and A. Strahan, 1802.
Great
Britain. Record Commission. Rotulus Cancellarii: vel Antigraphum magni Rotuli
pipae de tertio anno regni regis Johannis. London: G. Eyre and A. Spottiswoode,
1833.
Great
Britain. Record Commission. Rotuli de Oblatis et finibus in Turri londensi,
asservat, tempore regis Johannis. ed. T. D. Hardy. London: G. Eyre and A.
Spottiswoode, 1835.
Great
Britain. Record Commission. Rotuli normanniae in turri londinensi asservati,
Johanne et Henrico quinto, Angliae regibus. London: G. Eyre and A.
Spottiswoode, 1835.
Great
Britian. Record Commission. Rotuli selecti Ad rec Anglicas et Hibernicas
spectantes; ex archivis in Doma capitulari; west Monasteriensi deprompt.
London: G. Eyre and A. Spottiswoode, 1834.
Harding,
Alan. England in the Thirteenth Century. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
1992.
Hardy,
T. D., ed. Rotuli de liberate ac de misis et praestitus regnante Johanne.
London: G. Eyre and A. Spottiswoode, 1844.
Harper-Bill,
Christopher. The Cartulary of the Augustinian Friars of Clare. Woodbridge: The
Boydell Press, 1991.
Harper-Bill,
Christopher, Christopher J. Holdsworth and Janet L. Nelson, eds. Studies in
Medieval History Presented to R. Allen Brown. Woodbridge: The Boydell Press,
1989.
Hicks,
Michael. Bastard Feudalism. New York: Longman, 1995.
Holt,
J. C. Magna Carta and Medieval Government. London: The Hambledon Press, 1985.
Holt,
J. C. and Richard Mortimer, eds. ACTA of Henry II and Richard I. London: List
and Index Society, Paradigm Print, 1986.
Howlett,
Richard, ed. Gesta Stephani Regis Anglorum: Chronicles of the Reigns of
Stephen, Henry II and Richard I. Vol. I. London: Trubner & Co.: Vol. II.
Oxford: Parker & Co.: Vol. III. Cambridge: McMillan & Co.: Vol. IV.
Edinburgh: A. & C. Black and Douglas & Foulis: Vol. V. Dublin: A. Thom
& Co., Ltd., 1844-1889.
Hudson,
John. Land, Law and Lordship in Anglo-Norman England. Oxford: The Clarendon
Press, 1994.
Johnson,
Paul. Castles of England, Scotland and Wales. New York: Harper & Row, 1989.
Jolliffe,
J. E. A. Angevin Kingship. London: Adam and Charles Black, 1958.
Keen,
Maurice. Chivalry. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1984.
Kenyon,
John and Richard Avent, eds. Castles in Wales and the Marches: Essays in Honour
of D. J. Cathcart King. Cardiff: University of Wales Press, 1987.
Kightly,
Charles. A Mirror of Medieval Wales: Gerald of Wales and His Journey of 1188.
ed. David M. Robinson. Cardiff: CADW, 1988.
King,
D. J. Cathcart, The Castle in England and Wales: An Interpretative History.
Portland: Areopagitica Press, 1988.
Landon,
Lionel, ed. The Cartae Antiquae Rolls 1-10 Printed from the Original MSS.
London: J. W. Ruddock & Sons, 1939.
La
Patourel, John. Feudal Empires Norman and Plantagenet. London: the Hambledon
Press, 1985.
Leges
Henrici Primi. ed. & trans. by L. J. Donnen. Oxford: The Clarendon Press,
1972.
Lewis,
E. A., ed. An Inventory of the Early Chancery Proceedings Concerning Wales.
Cardiff: University Press Board, 1937.
Lydon,
James, ed. The English in Medieval Ireland: Proceedings of the First Joint
Meeting of the Royal Irish Academy and the British Academy, Dublin, 1982.
Dublin: Royal Irish Academy, 1984.
MacNiocaill,
G., ed. The Red Book of the Earls of Kildare. Dublin: Irish Manuscript
Commission, 1964.
Matthew
Paris. Chronicles of Matthew Paris. ed. & trans. by Richard Vaughan. New
York: St. Martins' Press, 1984.
Normandy.
Exchequer. Magni Rotuli Scaccarii Normanniae sub regibus Angliae. 2 vols.
trans. by Thomas Stapleton. London: Sumptibus Soc. Antiq., 1840-1844.
Orpen,
G. H. The Song of Dermot and the Earl. Oxford: The Clarendon Press, 1891.
Painter,
Sidney. Studies in the History of the English Feudal Barony. Baltimore: The
Johns Hopkins Press, 1943.
---.
The Reign of King John. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins Press, 1968.
---.
William Marshal Knight-Errant, Baron and Regent of England. Buffalo: University
of Toronto Press, 1982.
Platt,
Colin. The Architecture of Medieval Britain. New Haven: Yale University Press,
1990.
Poole,
A. L. Domesday to Magna Carta. Oxford: The Clarendon Press, 1966.
Pounds,
Norman. The Medieval Castle in England and Wales. Cambridge: University of
Cambridge Press, 1990.
Rees,
William. An Historical Atlas of Wales from Early to Modern Times. London:
Faber, 1967.
Regesta
Regium Anglo-Normannorum 1066-1154 Vol. II: Regesta Henrici Primi. eds. Charles
Johnson and H. A. Cronne. Oxford: The Clarendon Press, 1957.
Regesta
Regium Anglo-Normannorum Vol. III; Regesta Regis Stephani ac Mathildis
Imperatricis as Gaufridi et Henrici Ducum Normannorum 1135-1154. eds. H. A.
Cronne and R. H. C. Davies. Oxford: The Clarendon Press, 1968.
Regesta
Regium Anglo-Normannorum Vol. IV: Facsimiles of Original Charters and Writs of
King Stephen, The Empress Mathilda and Dukes Geoffrey and Henry 1135-1154. eds.
H. A. Cronne and R. H. C. Davies. Oxford: The Clarendon Press, 1969.
Richardson,
H. G. and G. O. Sayles, eds. The Administration of Ireland 1172-1377. Dublin:
The Stationery Office for the Irish Manuscripts Commission, 1963.
Roche,
Richard. The Norman Invasion of Ireland. 3rd ed. Dublin: Anvil Books, 1995.
Roger
of Hoveden. The Annals of Roger of Hoveden. trans. Henry T. Riley. London:
Henry G. Bohun, 1849.
Roger
of Wendover. Roger of Wendover's Flowers of History. 2 vols. trans. J. A.
Giles. London: G. Bohn, 1849-1859.
Rotularum
Patentium Clausarum Cancellariae Hiberniae Calendarium. Dublin: Irish Record
Commission, 1928.
Round,
J. Horace, ed. Ancient Charters Royal and Private Prior to A. D. 1220. London:
Wyman and Sons, The Pipe Roll Society, 1888.
---.
Calendar of Documents Preserved in France Illustrative of the History of
England and Ireland. London: G. Eyre and A. Spottiswoode, 1899.
---.
Historical Studies on the Eleventh and Twelfth Centuries. London: reprint G.
Allan and Unwin, 1964.
Sanders,
Ivor J. English Baronies: A Study in their Origin and Descent. Oxford: The
Clarendon Press, 1960.
Shirley,
Walter Waddington, ed. Royal and Other Historical Letters Illustrative of the
Reign of Henry III. Vol. I 1216-1235. London: Longman, Green, Longman and
Roberts, 1862.
---.
Royal and Other Historical Letters Illustrative of the reign of Henry III. Vol.
II 1236-1272. London: Longman, Green, Reuder and Dyer, 1866.
Soulsby,
Ian. The Towns of Medieval Wales. Chichester: Phillimore & Co., Ltd., 1983.
Stephen,
Sir Leslie and Sir Sidney Lee, eds. The Dictionary of National Biography.
Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1885-1900.
Stubbs,
William. Historical Introductions to the Rolls Series. ed. Arthur J. Hassall.
New York: Haskell House Publishers, Ltd., 1968.
Sweetman,
H. S., ed. Calendar of Documents Relating to Ireland Preserved in HMSO
1171-1327. London: Longman, 1875-1886. Valduz: Kraus Reprint Ltd., 1966.
The
Chronicle of Melrose from the Cottonian Manuscript, Faustina B, IX. London:
Percy Lund Humphries & Co., Ltd., 1936.
The
Chronicles of the Reigns of Henry II and Richard I A.D. 1169-1192, commonly
known as Benedict of Peterborough. ed. William Stubbs. London: HMSO, 1867.
London: Kraus Reprint Ltd., 1965.
The
Great Roll of the Pipe for the Fifth Year of the Reign of King Henry III
Michaelmas 1221. London: J.W. Ruddock & Sons, Ltd., 1990.
The
Great Roll of the Pipe for the First Year of the Reign of King Richard I A.D.
1189-1190. London: G. Eyre and A. Spottiswoode, 1844.
The
Great Roll of the Pipe for the Fourth Year of the reign of King Henry III
Michaelmas 1220. London: J. W. Rudduck & Sons, Ltd., 1987.
Three
Rolls of the King's Court in the Reign of King Richard the First A. D.
1194-1195. London: HMSO, 1891. Vaduz: Kraus Reprint, Ltd., 1966.
Turner,
Ralph V. The King and His Courts; The Rule of John and Henry III in the
Administration of Justice 1199-1240. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1968.
Walker,
David. Medieval Wales. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990.
---.
The Normans in Britain. Oxford: Blackwell, 1993.
Walker,
Sue Sheridan, ed. Wife and Widow in Medieval England. Ann Arbor: University of
Michigan Press, 1993.
Warren,
W. L. The Governance of Norman and Angevin England 1084-1272. Stanford: Stanford
University Press, 1987.
Waugh,
Scott L. The Lordship of England: Royal Wardships and Marriages in English
Society and Politics 1217-1327. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1988.
White,
Newport B, ed. The Red Book of Ormond. Dublin: The Stationery Office, 1932.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Other
articles by Catherine Armstrong
Return
to Castle Index, Castle Database, or Castle Location Maps
Return
to main castle page menu